GALLIPOLI

BATTLEFIELD TOUR APRIL - MAY 1996

 

'These by the Dardanelles laid down their shining youth

In battle and won fair renown for their native land

So that their enemy groaned carrying war's harvest from the field

But for themselves they founded a deathless monument of valour'

Anonymous, Greece, 5th Century BC

PLACES VISITED

Istanbul

Istanbul is the only city in the world to straddle two continents - Europe and Asia. The city is a mix of the historic and modern and is divided by the Bosphorus, the 32 km stretch of water that connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara. The Bosphorus (Istanbul Bogazi - Straits of Istanbul) is a name that is derived from legend. In the early 7th Century BC the Greeks founded a city on the Asian side of the straits. Soon after the present city began with Byzantium on the First Hill. The city developed on the naturally protected promontory, bounded on the north by the Golden Horn, the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara on the east and south. It only needed the 7 km long Istanbul Land Wall on the western side, from the Sea of Marmara to the Bosphorus, to provide complete protection. These walls date from the 5th Century and the reign of Emperor Theodosius II. With their many towers and bastions they were once the mightiest fortifications in Christendom. The city has long outgrown these limits.

A cruise of part of the Bosphorus, departing from a jetty adjacent to the Dolmabahce Mosque, includes a range of sights both ancient and modern. The Dolmabahce Palace is a 600m long white marble building on the European shore of the Bosphorus. It was built in the mid-19th Century by Sultan Abdulmecit I. It was the official residence of the Sultan between 1853 and 1923. Ataturk used it as his official residence when in Istanbul and he died there on 10 November 1938. On either shore are summer palaces of the sultans, wooden villas, mosques, fortresses, and in quiet bays; parks and restaurants. Standing above the traditional architecture is the Bosphorus Bridge, one of the world's largest suspension bridges, connecting the European and Asian shores. Close to the bridge on the European side is the Rumeli Hisari, or the European Fortress, built by Mehmet the Conqueror in 1452. It was completed prior to the conquest of Istanbul in only four months and is a most impressive piece of military architecture. On the opposite shore is the Andolu Hisari. Our cruise concluded at Tarabya Bay, a quaint fishing boat and yacht harbour.

Some of Istanbul's most interesting places stand on a small area of land at the confluence of the Golden Horn, the Sea of Marmara and the Bosphorus. Here stand the Sultanahmet Mosque (Blue Mosque), Ayasofya Museum, (The Basilica of St Sophia, Hakia Sofya), the Hippodrome, and the Topkapi Palace. Nearby are the restored Istanbul Land Wall, remnants of the Bozdogan-Valens Aquaduct, the Kapali Carsi (Grand Bazaar) and the Suleymaniye Mosque.

The Topkapi Palace is a maze of buildings at the centre of the Ottoman Empire between the 15th and 19th Centuries. The palace kitchens are now galleries exhibiting the imperial collections of crystal, silver and porcelain. There are buildings of many architectural styles including the Hall of Audience, a library now displaying the imperial costumes of the sultans and their families, the jewels in the treasury, a pavilion containing relics of the Prophet Mohammed, and various gardens and walkways offering views over the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus. The Blue Mosque was built between 1609 and 1616 by the architect Mehmet. It gets its name from the many blue and white tiles on its interior walls. Although it is of immense size its principal distinguishing feature is that it has six minarets, the only such mosque in the world. The Ayasofya Museum is undoubetedly one of the most impressive buildings of any age. Built by Constantine the Great and reconstructed by Justinian in the 6th Century, its dome rises 55m above the ground with a diameter of 31m. Although subject to what will be a long restoration process it is possessed of a quiet serenity. It is slowly revealing the fine Byzantine mosaics on its walls, at the same time displaying the signs of its subsequent conversion into a mosque, the Hakia Sofya. The ancient Hippodrome, the scene of chariot races and the centre of Byzantine civic life, stood in the open space in front of the Blue Mosque. Of the monuments that once decorated it only three remain; the Obelisk of Theodosius, the bronze Serpentine Column and the Column of Constantine.

Conspicuous by its great size, the cascading domes and the four slender minarets of the Suleymaniye Mosque dominate the skyline of the west bank of the Golden Horn. It is considered to be the most beautiful of the imperial mosques in Istanbul and was built between 1550 and 1557 by Sinan, a renowned architect of the Ottoman golden age. The

900m long remnants of the Bozdogan-Valens Aquaduct, built by the Emperor Valens in

368 AD to supply the Byzantine and later the Ottoman palaces with water, straddle the major highway that runs through the old town. The Kapali Carsi (Grand Bazaar) is a labyrinth of streets and passageways housing over 4,000 shops. Artisans and hawkers sell carpets, jewellery, leathergoods, evil eye charms, clothing, ceramics and antiques (both ancient and modern).

From Istanbul to Canakkale

The route taken was by road to follow the northern shore of the Sea of Marmara via Tekirdag, Kesan, Bolayir, Gelibolu and Eceabat, and then by ferry to Canakkale. The total distance is 340 km. Our bus trip to Eceabat was covered in light rain and overcast. It was an interesting trip through the suburbs of Istanbul and the rolling countryside on narrow roads. Several vehicle accidents were passed along the way.

Tekirdag is 138 km from Istanbul and is a major commercial centre with a population of approximately 40,000. In 1915 it was known as Rodosto and was a major Turkish port on the coast of Thrace. It gained some notoriety because of several exploits by British submarines. We didn't see much of it, however it looked as though it was developing into a retirement and holiday centre. From Tekirdag we headed for Bolayir, via Kesan (where we had an apple tea and toilet stop).

Bolayir is 130 km from Tekirdag, and 14 km north east of Gelibolu. The Bolayir (Bulair in 1915) isthmus is the narrowest part of the peninsula. Here the peninsula is only five km wide. The Royal Naval Division (RND) made a feint landing on 25 April, effectively deceiving the German General commanding the Turkish forces, Liman von Sanders about the precise location of the Allied landings for over 24 hours. Throughout 25 April, von Sanders believed this was the real threat and retained two Divisions, a third of his force, near Bolayir for 24 hours. Apparently the French preferred Bolayir as the principal landing site, however the British considered it to be to obvious and the site too well defended. Fortifications were built across the narrow isthmus - first by the Ottomans in about 1357, and later by the British, French and Turks during the Crimean War. In 1915 the Turks again heavily entrenched it because it was a favourable site for a landing. More contemporary concrete bunkers on intersecting arcs of fire still dot the area and it remains a strategically sensitive area. Since 1854 the defensive works have been known as the Bulair Lines.

Gelibolu is just off the main highway. A highlight was lunch at the fishing boat harbour, and we also noticed a substantial military barracks. Gelibolu was first known by its Greek name Callipolis (a.k.a. Kallipolis, Gallipolis, and Heliopolis ) from which Gallipoli (City of the Gauls) was derived. In the 14th Century the Ottoman empire in Anatolia began a period of expansion. In 1354 Sultan Orhan I appointed his son Suleyman to head 3,000 troops to cross the straits to capture Gelibolu. They constructed earthworks across the narrow isthmus at Bolayir. It was to be almost 100 years before the Ottomans succeeded in capturing Istanbul. Under Ottoman rule the town became a naval port.

Eceabat (pron. Edge-e-abat) is a further 44 km on along a winding road, much of it traversed alongside the Dardanelles. As we just missed the car ferry to Canakkale we took the opportunity of a look around this typically small village. The main features are the fish sellers, small shops, schools, mosque, toilets and the ferry terminal itself. Another, smaller, ferry terminal catering for cars and small trucks (a dolmus ferry) is farther south at Kilitbahir.

Much of the return journey was done in the dark of early morning and in much better weather, and was therefore a little less exciting.

Canakkale (pron. Chanak - alee) has a population in excess of 40,000 (approximately 16,000 in 1914). It is one of the best places for visitors to the battlefield to base themselves and has several military and historical sites. Despite recent development and the presence of the ferry terminal, it remains generally a pretty and bustling place, especially along the waterfront. It is the capital of the province, Canakkale il, and overlooks the narrowest crossing of the Canakkale Bogazi (The Dardanelles). It is a major service centre and continues to be important strategically with a substantial Army and Navy presence. During weekends vendors hawk wares along the waterfront and there are queues of vehicles waiting to board the ferry to Eceabat on the European side of the Narrows. The town's name derives from distinctive earthenware household pots, Canak, made here in the 19th Century and no longer produced, and kale, meaning 'castle' or 'fort.' In summer the maximum temperature varies from 27C - 30C. Winters are generally mild, but blizzards are not uncommon. In late April it was cool with cold breezes. Near the roundabout close to the Anafartala Hotel is a distinctive clock tower, constructed in 1902.

Sultan Mehmet II (the conqueror of Istanbul) built the fort (Cimenlik Kale) between 1452 and 1462, and it was restored by Suleyman the Magnificent in 1551. The fort was coded by the British 'Fort No 20.' Used by the military until 1982 it is now part of Gezi Parki and is open to visitors. The complex is divided into four parts:

* The outer park with displays of 19th and 20th Century artillery pieces.

* Inside the walls there is an open air display of cannon, naval guns and artillery pieces of the 19th and 20th Centuries. One wall shows evidence of the damage caused by shelling from the Queen Elizabeth in March 1915. It is interesting to walk around this ancient fort, including the parapet.

* The Keep. Inside the Keep are displays of artefacts from the Gallipoli campaign, including shells, cartridge cases, weapons, water bottles, stoneware, badges and personal effects.

Turkish food is similar to other Mediterranean cuisines such as Greek and Lebanese. There are many small cafes along the waterfront and in nearby streets. The food was simple, nutritious and inexpensive. Some of our party found Turkish beer to be pretty good and pretty cheap. Facilities in Canakkale included money changing kiosks where the exchange rate was very competitive and the service prompt, supermarkets, chemists, taxis, bus station and clothing and souvenir shops.

The straits separating the Gallipoli Peninsula from Asian Turkey have been known by several names. The present name means 'Straits of Canakkale.' The narrowest stretch, between Nara Burnu (on the Asian side) and Kilitbahir (on the European side), is the famous 'Narrows.' The straits are 65 km long from their opening in the Sea of Marmara to the entrance to the Aegean Sea. At their narrowest, they are 1.3 km wide. They run South West, apart from the short 'Narrows' section, where the channel makes a sharp turn South. The Greek name for the straits was Hellespont, derived from the myth of Jason and the search for the Golden Fleece.

On the western shore of the Dardanelles the village is accessible from Canakkale by dolmus ferry (approximately 15 minutes). By road it is five km from Eceabat, 17 km from Anzac Cove, and 23 km from Seddulbahir. The village has only basic services, a restaurant, public toilets and a kiosk. There is an increasing number of holiday homes on the heights above the fort and village. Kilitbahir (Key to the Sea) is a distinctive heart shaped fortress built by Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror in 1462-3, on the site of an older Byzantine fort, to guard the 'Narrows.' The fort is complemented by Cimenlik Kale or Kalesi (castle) directly across the 'Narrows' at Canakkale. In 1915 the naval bombardment of the forts from the Aegean Sea left them almost unscathed as they were in the lee of the Kilitbahir Plateau. On 18 March naval shells fell on the village and largely destroyed it. The guns in the Rumeli battery, just south of Kilitbahir damaged the HMS Irresistible. By the end of the day the ammunition in the Kilitbahir forts totalled ten rounds.

South of Kilitbahir fort the Turks distributed along the heights at least 55 guns of various calibres in 11 batteries. Nineteen guns were in the fort area itself. Additionally, there were three mobile howitzer batteries. Approximately 3.5 km south of Kilitbahir are two monuments and the remains of a four gun emplacement with excellent fields of fire across the Dardanelles. The older monument (Havuzlar Memorial) was erected in 1960-1 and marks the site of the gun emplacement that played a major role in the defeat of the Allied naval attack of 18 March.

On the western shore of the Dardanelles, it is 12 km from Anzac Cove. In 1915 the village was known as Maidos and had a population of approximately 4,000. Eceabat - Canakkale is the main crossing of the Dardanelles and an important link between Europe and Asia.

Two km north of Eceabat the road turns west towards Anzac and leaves the Dardanelles. During the campaign the Turks built an improvised harbour to cater for supply ships from Istanbul. From Kilye Liman the conical shape of Maltepe can be seen two km to the north west. Xerxes apparently used it as an observation platform in 480 BC while his army crossed the Hellespont into Europe on a bridge of boats. The hill was an objective for the Anzac troops on 25 April. It was never reached. On the northern end of the bay is Kilye Tepe. In July 1915, the Turks placed a submarine net between Nara Burnu (on the eastern bank of the straits) and Kilye Tepe. Nara Burnu was the site of ancient Abydos. Nara is a military base and no visitors are allowed. The only way to view it is from the west bank of the straits.

About four km north of Kilye Tepe at the mouth of another valley is Akbas Liman (Akbash Harbour). This is a military area with a well cared for barracks, a small harbour and a patrol boat. The ancient Greek city of Sestos stood on the cliff on the southern side of the harbour. Xerxes crossed from Asia to Europe on a bridge of boats between Abydos and Sestos. In 334 BC, Alexander the Great's army crossed at the same point.

The Troad was the name the Greeks gave to the area around Troy. Settlement in the Troad dates to at least 3000 BC, possibly 4000 BC. The first settlers were almost certainly from Thrace and the first city on the site of Troy was probably built after 3000 BC. The city grew in importance because of its position on a hill overlooking the entrance to the Hellespont. From its earliest settlements, the Hellespont was important enough to be fought over.

Greek colonisation of the Gallipoli Peninsula began in the 7th Century BC. In

480 BC the Persian Xerxes crossed the Hellespont by building a bridge of 300 boats from Abydos Point on the Asian side. In 334 BC Alexander the Great crossed in the opposite direction on his conquests as far as India. The name 'Dardanelles' for the straits, dates from the Roman period when a treaty was signed between the Romans and Anatolians at the city of Dardanus (ruins 11 km south of Canakkale) in 85 BC. Later, crusaders crossed into Anatolia and finally the Ottoman army under Suleyman was shipped across in 1356, making Ottoman rule complete over Anatolia and Thrace, approximating the present boundaries of Turkey.

On 16 May 1654 a Venetian squadron attacked and defeated Turkish ships in the straits. The Venetians controlled the straits until they were expelled by the Turks three years later. The issue of control of the straits re-emerged several times between 1774 and 1914. Russian expansion precipitated the Crimean War 1854-56, at the conclusion of which the Black Sea was made a neutral waterway and merchant ships of all nations were allowed to pass through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.

By early October 1914 the Dardanelles were closed to Allied shipping. Close Turkish relations with Germany and Turkish attacks on Russian Black Sea ports led to war with Russia. On 3 November the Allied fleet opened fire on the forts guarding the entrance to the Dardanelles. Within days a state of war existed between Turkey and the Allies. A plan for a purely naval assault through the Dardanelles to 'support' the Russians using some of Britain's older ships was developed. On 15 January 1915 approval was provided, and one of the Royal Navy's newest ships, HMS Queen Elizabeth, was provided to calibrate her guns. The French agreed to contribute a naval squadron. The naval attacks began on 19 February and made slow progress. The forts at the entrance to the Dardanelles, Seddulbahir (on the European side) and Kumkale (on the Asian side) were neutralised. Inside the straits the fleet encountered difficulties being unable to clear minefields protecting the 'Narrows' and the forts were standing up well to ammunition principally designed to sink ships. Additionally, mobile batteries were proving difficult to locate and by early March raiding parties were meeting heavy resistance. On 18 March the fleet entered the Dardanelles, principally to destroy the forts in order to make it easier to clear a passage through the minefields to the 'Narrows.' One French and two British battleships were lost and the Allied fleet had failed to penetrate the Dardanelles. Disillusionment with the navy effort led to General Sir Ian Hamilton, Commander of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, to propose military assistance.

The allied Naval strategy of 1914 was fatally flawed in that it underestimated the Turkish determination to prevent penetration through the Dardanelles to Istanbul. The Turkish appreciation of the strategic importance of the area is on daily display.

The Canakkale Bogazi is now controlled under the terms of the 1936 Montreux Treaty whereby with the exception of aircraft carriers and submarines, all warships of the Black Sea states are granted unrestricted access in peacetime.

A terminal to service passenger ferries has been completed at Kabatepe. As well as potentially improving access to the Gallipoli battlefields, this terminal improves access to the offshore Turkish islands in the Aegean Sea thereby demonstrating Turkish commitment to the retention of these islands.

The further development of the battlefield sites is also continuing with new roads, additional Turkish memorials and the museum site near Kabatepe .